442: ‘Paper sons’ rebuilt San Francisco’s Chinatown after 1906 quake

What about the ‘paper daughters'?

While the term "paper sons" dominates discussions of Chinese immigration in this era, "paper daughters" were also a part of this system, though far less common. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, U.S. immigration laws and labor needs created a gender disparity in the Chinese American community. With the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad and the Gold Rush, men were sought after for labor-intensive jobs. Meanwhile, the Page Act of 1875 explicitly restricted Chinese women, assuming they were involved in “immoral” activities. These restrictions, reinforced by the Chinese Exclusion Act, created a largely male immigrant population and limited family immigration.

In traditional Chinese society, patrilineal family structures placed importance on male heirs. As a result, men were more likely to be claimed as “sons” to continue family lines. Although some Chinese women also entered as “paper daughters,” limited opportunities and heightened immigration barriers kept those numbers low.

Rebuilding Chinatown: Economic and cultural impact

Chinatown's recovery after the 1906 earthquake became a defining moment for San Francisco’s cultural and economic landscape. City officials initially proposed relocating Chinatown to an industrial zone on the city’s outskirts, the most toxic tract of the City by the Bay, aiming to seize its central land for redevelopment. However, Chinese community leaders and merchants, recognizing the racist and economic motivations behind the plan, organized an all-hands resistance. They underscored Chinatown’s economic contributions, arguing that its businesses were vital to the city’s recovery and tourism potential. This advocacy, combined with the urgency to rebuild San Francisco, ultimately persuaded city leaders to allow Chinatown to remain in its original location.

The reconstruction effort aimed to transform Chinatown into a cultural hub. To appeal to both the Chinese community and San Francisco’s growing tourism sector, architects— under the direction of Look Tin Eli and other merchant leaders, infused traditional Chinese architectural elements, such as ornate facades and curved balconies, into the buildings—gave Chinatown an "Orientalized" aesthetic that aligned with the exoticized view many Americans held. This intentional design—akin to the performative stereotype adoption unpacked by Richard Wright in his novels and memoir—elevated Chinatown as both a tourist destination and a community stronghold, reinforcing its economic importance and cultural significance for generations.

Racial tensions and gradual acceptance

The aftermath of the 1906 earthquake provided the white city administration with an opportunity to permanently displace the Chinese community. Just days after the quake, San Francisco Mayor Eugene E. Schmitz instructed the police chief to relocate all Chinese residents to Hunters Point. City elites had long viewed Chinatown as overcrowded, unsanitary, and incompatible with their vision of a rebuilt San Francisco, prompting them to argue for its relocation under the guise of public safety—all of which echoed the city’s response of scapegoating Chinatown when the bubonic plague tore through the area from 1900-04. The overall post-quake push to uproot Chinatown fits what later would be described by Naomi Klein as “disaster capitalism,” wherein crises are used to justify profit-driven policies at the expense of marginalized communities.

However, as Chinatown’s reconstruction progressed, its economic success began to shift public perceptions. Tourists and investors drawn to Chinatown’s cultural vibrancy contributed significantly to San Francisco’s broader revival, showcasing Chinatown as an essential economic and cultural asset. While anti-Chinese prejudice remained, the success of Chinatown’s rebuild paved the way for a gradual, albeit selective, acceptance of the community within the business and tourism sectors. This resilience, driven by strategic adaptation, demonstrated how communities facing exclusion can reshape public perception through economic contribution and cultural pride.

Parallels to modern immigration struggles

Chinatown’s survival and reinvention after the 1906 earthquake reflect patterns of resilience and adaptation that continue in marginalized communities today. Much like the “paper sons” system allowed Chinese immigrants to navigate restrictive legal barriers, modern immigrant communities use creative approaches to establish a foothold in American society amid displacement and economic challenges.

For example, the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) policy of 2012—which emerged as a lawful, but temporary executive policy to protect undocumented immigrants brought to the United States as children—illustrates another way in which marginalized communities have maneuvered through stringent immigration policies to secure their futures in the United States.

The lessons of 1906 remind us that even in the face of disaster, natural and otherwise, communities can rebuild and thrive, shaping a more inclusive and resilient future for all.